Taoism (Daoism) is the English name referring to a variety of related Chinese philosophical and religious traditions and concepts. These traditions influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally. Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao; namely, compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei ("non-action"), spontaneity, humanism, and emptiness. An emphasis is placed on the link between people and nature. Taoism teaches that this link lessened the need for rules and order, and leads one to a better understanding of the world.
The character Tao 道 (or Dao, depending on the romanisation scheme) means "path" or "way", but in Chinese religion and philosophy it has taken on more abstract meanings. Tao is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Indian concepts of atman and dharma.
The word "Taoism" is used to translate different Chinese terms. Daojiao/Taochiao (道教 "teachings/religion of the Dao") refers to Daoism as a religion. Daojia/Taochia (道家 "school of the Dao") refers to the studies of scholars, or "philosophical" Daoism. However, most scholars have abandoned the dichotomy of "religious" and "philosophical" Daoism.
Most traditional Chinese Taoists are polytheistic. Nature and ancestor spirits are also common in popular Taoism.
Organized Taoism distinguishes its ritual activity from that of the folk religion, which some professional Taoists (Daoshi) view as debased.
This sort of shamanism is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemy among the "elite" Taoists.
Chinese alchemy, astrology, cuisine, several Chinese martial arts, Chinese traditional medicine, fengshui, and many styles of qigong breath training disciplines are intertwined with Taoism throughout history.
The cosmographic 'tai-chi'.
There exists a long history of movement
and exercise systems which are associated
with Taoism. In some sense one can see
elements of all of these as contributing to
the climate from which Tai Chi emerged.
Lao Tsu, the founder of Taoism, wrote:
Yield and overcome;
Bend and be straight.
-- Tao Te Ching (22)
He who stands of tiptoe is not steady.
He who strides cannot maintain the pace.
-- Tao Te Ching (24)
Returning is the motion of the Tao.
Yielding is the way of the Tao.
-- Tao Te Ching (40)
What is firmly established cannot be
uprooted.
What is firmly grasped cannot slip away.
-- Tao Te Ching (54)
Stiff and unbending is the principle of
death.
Gentle and yielding is the principle of
life.
Thus an Army without flexibility never
wins a battle.
A tree that is unbending is easily broken.
The hard and strong will fall.
The soft and weak will overcome.
-- Tao Te Ching (76)
There are some interesting inspirations for
the movement philosophy of Tai Chi within
the writings of Chuang Tzu, for example:
"The pure man of old slept without
dreams and woke without anxiety. He ate
without indulging in sweet tastes and
breathed deep breaths. The pure man draws
breaths from the depths of his heels, the
multitude only from their throats."
And:
"[The sage] would not lean forward
or backward to accomodate [things]. This
is called tranquility on disturbance,
(which means) that it is especially in the
midst of disturbance that tranquility
becomes perfect."
Talisman of the Jade
Lady.
This approach is reflected in the entire
movement philosophy of Tai Chi Chuan. There
is, moreover, a long tradition of Taoist
monks practicing exercises. Some of these
were referred to as tai-yin or Taoist
Breathing. Exactly what these were and what
their origins were is obscure but they are
mentioned in Chinese chronicles as early as
122 B.C.
Then in the sixth century A.D.
Bodihdharma (called Ta Mo in Chinese)
came to the Shao-Lin Monastery and, seeing
that the monks were in poor physical
condition from too much meditation and too
little excersize, introduced his Eighteen
Form Lohan Exercise. This approach gave
rise to the Wei Chia or
'outer-extrinsic' forms of exercise.
Later in the fifteenth century A.D. the
purported founder of Tai Chi Chuan, the monk
Chang San-feng, was honoured by the
Emperor Ying- tsung with the title of chen-jen,
or 'spiritual man who has attained the Tao
and is no longer ruled by what he sees,
hears or feels.' This indicates that already
at this time there was a close association
between the philosophy of Taoism and the
practice of Tai Chi.
In the Ming dynasty (14th to 17th
centuries), Wang Yang-ming a leading
philosopher preached a philosophy which was
a mixture of Taoism and Ch'an Buddhism which
had certain associations with movement
systems.
In any event the principles of yielding,
softness, centeredness, slowness, balance,
suppleness and rootedness are all elements
of Taoist philosophy that Tai Chi has drawn
upon in its understanding of movement, both
in relation to health and also in its
martial applications. One can see these
influences (of softness and effortlessness)
in the names of certain movements in the Tai
Chi Form, such as:
Cloud Hands
Wind Rolls the Lotus Leaves
Brush Dust Against the Wind
Push the Boat with the Current
Winds Sweeps the Plum Blossoms
Moreover the contemplation and appreciation
nature, which are central features of Taoist
thought seem to have been reflected in the
genesis of many Tai Chi movements such as:
White Crane Spreads Wings
Snake Creeps Down
Repulse Monkey
Embrace Tiger, Return to Mountain
White Snake Sticks Out its Tongue
Grasp Sparrow's Tail
Golden Cock Sands on One Leg
Swallow Skims the Water
Bird Flies into Forest
Lion Shakes it's Head
Tiger Hugs its Head
Wild Horse Leaps the Ravine
White Ape Devotes Fruit
Yellow Bee Returns to Nest
The story comes to us that Chang San-feng
watched a fight between a bird and a snake
and in this event saw how the soft and
yielding could overcome the hard and
inflexible. Particularly significant here is
the reference to the White Crane (The
Manchurian Crane, Grus japonensis),
with its red crest an important symbol for
Taoist alchemists.
Certain features of Taoist alchemy and
talismanic symbolism have also penetrated
the Tai Chi forms. As part of their
contemplation of nature the Taoists observed
the heavens and were keen students of
astronomy and astrology. Movements of the
Tai Chi Form such as :
Step Up to Seven Stars
Embrace the Moon
Biggest Star in the Great Dipper
Encase the Moon in Three Rings
The Smallest Star in the Big Dipper
Meteor Runs After Moon
Heavenly Steed Soars Across the Sky
Meditating Under the
Protection of the Big Dipper.
Reflect this Taoist astrological concern.
Symbolism was a potent force in Taoist
thinking. Taoist magic diagrams were
regarded as potent talismans having great
command over spiritual forces. They invoked
the harmonizing influence of yin-yang and
Eternal Change; the Divine Order of Heaven,
Earth and Mankind; and the workings of the
Universe through the principal of the Five
Elements. These were symbolized by the Five
Sacred Mountains (Taishan, Hengshan [Hunan],
Songshan, Huashan and Hengshan [Hopei]),
central places of Taoist development and
pilgrimage.
Thus it is no surprise to find that the
symbolism of names has, in important ways,
infiltrated the forms of Tai Chi. There was
a numerological component to this symbolism
as well. The number '5' has a special
mystical significance to Taoists (and to
Chinese in general). There are the symbolic
five mountains, five elements, five colours,
five planets, five virtues, five emotions,
five directions, etc. all of which have a
mystic significance. Hence we see five Repulse
Monkeys or Five Cloud Hands in
the Tai Chi form. There are many instances
where the numbers '1', '3', '5' and '7'
figure prominently in the structure of Tai
Chi.
